1531 was a fatal year for Christendom’s unity. Clement VII excommunicated Henry VIII, provoking the creation of the Anglican Church. It is the time of the Reform and a wave of renovation and strive for knowledge crossed throughout the European nations. Spain will oppose radically to the Reform movement, and the Hispanic king, Charles V, will make the defence of the Catholic faith one of the guidelines of his imperial policy.

Servetus was at that time in Basel, where he had the occasion to discuss with the reformer Oecolampadious the dogma of the Trinity and other theological issues. Oecolampadius probably taught, or at least, helped Servetus to improve his knowledge on Hebrew. Basel was a city which had been considered to be more tolerant than other cities towards dissidents. It had been a safe haven for some persecuted humanists, such as Erasmus of Rotterdam, who remained therein until 1529. Times, however, changed rapidly and the tolerant environment soon faded away. Servetus attempted to convince Oecolampadius to accept his approach on the dogma of the Trinity, but Oecolampadius deplored Sevetus’ doctrine on the Trinity, and he even commented to other reformers, such as Zuingli, the presence in Basel of a “young Spanish Arrian”. The Basel reformer threatened Servetus with denouncing him to the authorities, forcing Servetus to leave Basel and go to Strasburg which was considered one of the more tolerant cities of the period. Although it is likely that Servetus began to write his first work in Basel (“On the errors of the Trinity”), this treatise was finally published in Strasburg (Alsace, France) in 1531.

Given that this work reformulated one of the major underpinnings of the Christian faith, the dogma of the Trinity as declared in the Council of Nicaea in 325, Servetus had problems finding a printer for his book. The printer Conrad Reich from Basel did not accept to print it as he feared the reaction of the authorities. In that epoch, the task of a printer, was not limited, as it is mostly today to an industrial job. Most of the printers were intellectuals who cultivated the humanistic principles in their normal lives. For this reason, Reich, in spite of refusing to print Servetus’ work, arranged for Johannes Setzer of Haguenau, a village located 30 kilometers from Strasburg, to print the book.

The book was put on sale in the German bookshops in July 1531. The religious authorities of Strasburg condemned immediately the work and prohibited its sale. In Basel, repressive measures were also taken. Curiously enough, Servetus forwarded several books to the Bishop of Zaragoza in Spain and to Erasmus of Rotterdam. The book was also sold in Italy. The machinery of the Spanish Insquisition soon started to work (see “Historical Context” of “De Trinitatis Erroribus, libri duo” below).

Very few topics have been subject to such a heated controversy and dispute as the dogma of Trinity. According to Prof. Bainton, the reasons which may explain the establishment of such dogma by the religious hierarchy in the IV century related to the need to explain all that the doctrine of Incarnation in relation to God. If God had made himself flesh exclusively in Christ, and this latter was also God, Christians could be accused of having two Gods. And when the Holy Spirit became a person, then the problem was whether Christians could be allegedly said to have three Gods. The solution to this dilemma was to establish the dogma of the Trinity which consisted of admitting simultaneously a unity and a trinity in Godhead (R. H. Bainton, “El Hereje Perseguido”, Ed. Taurus, 1973, p. 40).

Servetus studied the Holy Scriptures, and as he stated in this first treatise, he did not find any reference to the word Trinity. Hence, he questioned the validity of one of the fundamental dogmas of Christianity: “We must not impose as truths - contended Servetus - concepts over which there are doubts”. According to Servetus, in God there is one single person, whereas the Roman church explained the Trinity as one entity in substance or essence but present in three persons or hypostases known as the Father, the Word (Logos) or the Son, and the Holy Spirit. All are equal and each of them is God, all are eternally divine yet there are different and are one. Servetus clearly opposed to the splitting up of the divine essence and contented that the persons of the Trinity are rather “forms” that God has chosen to manifest itself. According to Servetus, Christ was made a man by God, and his human nature prevents him from being God and participating in the eternity nature of God. As a result, God was eternal, but Jesus Christ (the Son), since he was begot by the Father, was not eternal.

This unorthodox interpretation of the dogma of Trinity did not mean that Servetus underestimated the importance of Christ to understand the relationship between God and mankind. For Servetus, Jesus Christ is the “key” which allows mankind to enter in God’s home and partake in his divinity.

About 128 originals are available in different libraries. The Institute’s library has several facsimil editions of this treatise .

The book was translated into English by Earl Morse Wilbur: “On the Errors of the Trinity. Seven Books. By Michael Serveto, alias Reves, a Spaniard of Aragon MDXXXI. In The two treatises of Servetus on the Trinity .... Now first translated into English by Earl Morse Wilbur, D.D.” (Cambridge: Harvard University Press; London, Humphrey Milford; Oxford University Press; Harvard Theological Studies, 1932).

The Spanish translation of this work by Ana Gómez Rabal will be published in Volume II of “Miguel Servet, Obras Completas”, Angel Alcalá Coord., Ed. Larumbe, forthcomming in 2004.

There is also a translation into the Catalan language by Ana Gómez Rabal: “Dels errors sobre la Trinitat” (Barcelona, Edicions Proa, 1999), with a thorough and excellent introduction to Servetus’ life and works by Miguel Lavilla Galindo.

A French translation is being prepared by Prof. Rolande-Michele Benin and Marie-Louise Gicquel and will be published soon by Honoré Champion Editeur.

[The numbers refer to the pages of the original version: (a) is the front page and (b) the reverse]

Servetus began his treatise stating that he retracts what he wrote in his first treatise, not because he was wrong, but because what he wrote was incomplete and inmature. However, the amendments with regard to the first treatise are mostly grammatical.

While in his first treatise, Servetus referred to Christ as the Son of God not by nature but by grace, now he added the nature, because the glory of the Father belongs to the Son by nature. As far as the Holy Spirit is concerned, he contended that the Holy Spirit became personalized by dwelling in us after Christ left. In his first treatise he distinguished between the incarnated Son and the pre-existing Word, whereas now he admits that the Word was Christ, though that the Word did not have any substance until Christ revealed his presence and his substance could be felt (R. H. Bainton, “El Hereje Perseguido”, Ed. Taurus, 1973, pp. 76-77).

This second book on the Trinity contains a treatise of 25 pages entitled “De Iustitia regni Christi, capitula quatuor” (“The Righteousness of Christ’s Kingdom”) in which Servetus assumed the role of a mediator between the reformers in the dispute relating to the presence of Christ in the Lord’s Supper. For Servetus, there is real presence of Christ in the Supper, but his presence is not physical but mystical: “The body of Christ - Servetus wrote - is eaten mystically by men” (C 2a). “It is by means of the Spirit that we drink the blood of Christ” (C 5b). “Only figuratively we speak of the bread as the Body of Christ” (C 5b). Therefore, Servetus coincided in this point with the protestant reformers Oecolampadius and Bucer. He also agreed with Luther with regard to the real presence of Christ in the Supper: for Servetus, Christ’s body is divine and spiritual flesh and it is not localized but diffused universally.

Reprinted in Ratisbona (Regensburg) in 1721. A facsimil edition of the “De Trinitatis erroribus libri septem” (1531).

Dialogorum de Trinitate libri duo.”De Iustitia regni Christi, capitula quatuor”(1532), was published by Minerva G.m.b.H., Frankfurt a.M. 1965.

In 1620, the book was translated into Dutch by Reiner Telle (Regnerus Vitellius, 1558[9]-1619[20]) (see above).

There is an English translation by Earl Morse Wilbur (1932) (see above).

The Spanish translation of this work by Ana Gómez Rabal will be published in Volume II of “Miguel Servet, Obras Completas”, Angel Alcalá Coord., Ed. Larumbe, forthcomming in 2004. There is also a translation of this work into the Catalan language by Ana Gómez Rabal (see above).

"All seem to have a part of truth and a part of error and each espies the error of others and fails to see his own. May God in his mercy enable us without obstinacy to perceive our errors. It would be easy to judge if it were permitted to all to speak in peace in the church that all might vie in prophesying and that those who are first inspired, as Paul says, might listen in silence to those who next speak, when anything is revealed to them. But today all strive for honor. May the Lord destroy all the tyrants of the church. Amen." (De Iustitia Regni Christi, 7.)

"Neither with those nor with the others, with all I agree and dissent; in all part of truth and part of error must be seen." (Nec cum istis nex cum illis in omnibus consentio. Omnes mihi videntur habere partem veritatis et partis erroris; et quilibet alterious errorem displicit, et nemo suum videt).

[The pages are those of the Spanish translation of this work by Dr. José Goyanes Capdevila]

Comparison between Spain and France

“The French are endowed with bigger limbs; those of the Spaniards are stronger; they have a very slim waist. The French fight with more ferocity than advise. The Spaniards the opposite.” (p. 100)

The French are more talkative; the Spanish more quiet, since they learned to dissimulate better. The French are joyful, prone to feasts, and escape from the hypocrisy and seriousness which is followed by the re-concentrated Spaniards. Thus, the Spaniards are less social in the feats, more ceremonial, showing a severe character, which is lacking in the French.”

"The Frech drink straight; the Spanish diluted in plenty of water. Amongst the French, strangers are received with human manners in the lodging houses; no service is refused to them; everything is provided to them to eat. Amongst the Spaniards, strangers are received more unpolitely to the extent that the exhausted traveller, in his way, has to strive to get food in every place. This makes Spaniars not very much inclined to travel and to spend their money prodigally; or inclined to provide services, to the extent that a servant does not provide any service to a prince if he does not want to. The Hispanic language is more serious; the French language softer.” (p. 101)

“In the Gallic territory, no land is uncultivated; in the Hispanic land there are many uncultivated and deserted places.” (p. 102)

“As far as church dignities are concerned, France has more than Spain, since it has 12 archbishops and 96 bishops; Spain 9 archbishops and 46 bishops. In both the number of cardials is equal, that is, 8.” (p. 103)

Intellectual character of the Spaniards

“The mood of the Spaniards is very uneasy and thoughtful, of ambitious projects, which are happily conceived, but they learn unhappily. Being half wise, they considered themselves already wise; they show a wisdom bigger than what they have, due to simulation and certain talkativeness. They love sophisms more than it is necessary. They prefer to talk in Hispanic language rather than in Latin in the academies, and they take a lot of words from the moors. They easily cultivate barbaric behaviour in their customs and manners.” (p. 104)

A custom of the Hispanic women

“Truly, the custom amongst Hispanic women of piercing their lobes with a golden or silver ring to which they hang, most of the times, a precious stone.” (p. 105)

Sobriety of the Spaniards

“Of a frugal life, as the Italians, they do not consume as much food and drink as much as the French and Germans, unless they are invited and in such a case they eat in the feasts until they are full, because amongst them invitations are very rare and they accept them with more eagerness.” (pp. 105-106)

The Spanish Inquisition and the “Santa Hermandad” (Saint Brotherhood)

“In Spain, great authority is held by those called the inquisitors of the faith, who have acted with great severity against the heretics, marranos [Jews converted into Catholicism] and saracens. There is also another remarkable institution of justice called the Brotherhood, as it is a sworn fraternity of citizens. At a sound of a bell from each city, many thousands of armed men come forth and chase any law infringer throughout the kingdom, sending messengers to other cities, so that it is almost impossible to escape. He who is apprehended is tied alive to a stake and shot with arrows.” (pp. 103-104)

About France

“The Gallics were called like that because of his milky and candid colour, since it means milk. Today they are called French, from the Francs, people from Germany, who conquered almost all France.” (p. 107)

Abundance of professors and lawyers in France

“Not only of lawyers is France filled up, but also with professors of all the disciplines; witness, the Paris Academy; after her, the one in Toulouse, mother of the jurist experts, and others, but the most illustrious of the world is the Parisian one, to which all the christians of Europe attend to learn Philosophy, Theology and all the rest of the liberal arts.” (p. 108)

Of the Kings of France

“Of the king of France two memorable things are told: first, that there is in the Church of Reims a glass that redounds endless cristma, sent from Heaven for the coronation of the king, with which all the kings are anointed. The other, that the king itself, by a simple touch, cures a scrofulous decease. I myself saw the king touching many affected by this decease, but I did not see that they had recovered from it.” (p. 109)

Germany. Features of its inhabitants

“The German males are of red color, with very big limps; valiant for war; however, they do not cope well with thirst, famine, heat and hard work; but in the first impetus, their nature is sudden and dominating. Honest, truthful, and not very witty; rarely one of them cheats on the other of them while negotiating; something that French and other peoples frequently do. Germans are also prone to Lordship, but they do not easily give up their opinions once they are imbued with them, and they cannot be reduced from chism to friendship; on the contrary, each of them defends valiantly his heresy.” (p. 113)

Poors always lost
In this paragraph, Servetus describes the dismal situation and miserable living conditions of German peasants:

“The condition of agricultural peasants is miserable since they live scattered in rural areas in huts of wood and mud built from little more than earth and covered with straw. Their bread is oatmeal porridge or boiled beans, their drink water and whey. They have prefects for each district who are called Schilder and who maintain the peasants in irremissible servitude and abuse and oppress them. Hence in our time we have seen the conspiracy and revolt of peasants against the nobles. But they always miserably fail.” (p. 112)
[Servetus refers in this paragraph to the peasants’ revolts which broke out in Stüblingen in June 1524 and which spread throughout the Rhine region, Suabia, Franconia and Turingia, causing thousands of deaths]

Italy. General Geographic Aspects

“It is a region full of metals, everywhere vital; healthy, timesless; low the temperature of the sky; fertile the fields; protected the gorges; many waterfalls, thick the woods, splendid the kinds of jungles; admirable the fruit; fertile in vineyards and olive trees; noble wool of the cattle and magnificent necks the bulls.” (p. 117)

Differences between regions

“The color of the Italians and their height is very diverse in the cisalpinus France and in the other side of the Venetus; the color, ordinarily white; the education and the language, better cared. To the contrary, throughout the Etruria, in the Lacious, Campania and in the Brucia, the hair is black; the height is inferior and less good looking macilenta; the language and the education, more simple.”

Differences in customs between the Italians

“The customs and the way of living are not the same for all the Italians, and they do not have the same laws either. These are governed under Pontifical laws, those under cesarious laws, others mostly under municipal laws. All have in common that they live frugally, with neatness, they have shaved heads and they cover themselves with very short gowns, showing their legs. The Venetians, whose city has wide domains in earth and sea, dress wider robes, as those used by Greeks, Turks, Russians and other northern populations. They enjoy so much with the things of their elders, that many times the grandchildren wear the dresses which were wore by the grand grandfathers. They are abundant in advices; talk slowly and have a rough pronunciation. They have a certain ridiculous magnificence, and they are so competent using the words that hardly ever tell the truth; they pretend to forgive injuries, but if at any time they have the occasion no one revenges more cruelly than them; they say frequently horrible swears and blasphemies. The Milanese, hated by the French, whom they also hate; with regard to the Spaniards, they do not trust anybody. Their conversation is rude; their language hastened, but much ruder is that of the Pedemontians. They are useless at war, unless there are plenty of them.” (p. 118)

Character of the Genovese

“The conversation of the Genovese is ridicoulus, and cannot be compared in literacy with the others; however, the way they dress is elegant, and they do not use gowns and coats. They do not have a lot of common sense or loyalty. They are skilled at revolting, lack hospitality, and forget the benefits.”

The Tuscan Language

“The language of the Tuscans is, amongst the Italian, recommended.”

Character of the Romans

"Romans are jealous and they take revenge very fiercely regarding adultery of women.” (p. 119)

Differences between the inhabitants of the Italian regions

“The Napolitans mocked the Calabrians; the Calabrians of the Apuls, of all these the Romans, of the Romans the Etruscs, of which the others also mock; and the Italians mock of the remainder of mortals, they scorn them and they called them barbars; being them, however, subject to being mocked by the Spaniards, French and Germans.” (p. 120)

Sardinia. Origin of the Sadonic laugh

“Neither there poison is born, but a weed, welcomed by many poets and writers, similar to the “apiastrus”, that make men laugh and almost kills those who laugh.” (p. 122)

Table VII of Europe. Poland

“The people are in general sensible and are very kind towards guests.” (p. 124).

Table IX of Europe. Hungary

“They cry for those who have passed away during one year and for some of them during two years. They shave until the upper lip. They adopt as cult law the orthodox faith.” (p. 128)

Custom amongst the Turks

“Both men and women use dresses quite wide and long, opened in the front; so that when they lean they can do more honestly with perfection and hide the work of nature; and they take care when they do this of not turning towards the south, where those who are praying turn their faces, and they look carefully that that when they are being observed by other men, they do not show their clumsiness. They also squat to urinate, as women do amongst us, since if one of them is watched standing up, he would be considered as ignorant or heretic. They refrain by law from drinking wine, because wine is the seed of sin and of all filth; nonetheless, they eat grapes and drink grape juice.” (p. 195)

Table of Holy Land

“However, you must know, reader, that so big goodness was attributed [to this land] by sheer boasting; since the experience of merchants and pilgrims shows that this land is uncultivated, sterile and lacks any sweetness (comfortability); for that reason call the promised land the awaited land, but do not praise it in your vernacular language.” (p. 197)
[Calvin relied on this description of the Holy Land as evidence of the heretic charges against Servetus in the proceedings which took place in Geneva, since the Bible describes the Palestine of Christ as a land rich of honey and milk.]

Table of Crete or Candia

“There are not in Crete dangerous animals, or snakes or owls and if one is found it dies soon. It has plenty of goats, lacks deers, but produces excellent wine. It produces an excellent grass which is called “dictamus” and the “alunosa” that when it is bitten allays hunger for a long time. It also has “falangos”, poisons and a stone called the finger of Ida.” (p. 205)

The New Land is not “America”

"And having built a tower of 39 feet and left overthere some colleagues to supervise and took possesion of the new world discovered by them, Columbus left with the rest into ships to Spain where he was received honorably by the monarchs and at their orders was saluted by all as viceroy, admiral and governor of the aforesaid new world, and thereafter he returned to the continent he discovered many other islands which are now very happily ruled by the Spanish. And those who contend that this continent should be called America err lawfully, since Amerigo approached that land long after Columbus, and he did not go with the Spaniards but with the Portuguese and for purposes of trade.” (p. 176)

Only two originals have survived in Paris and London. There is a facsímil of this work edited by the Oxford University Press in 1909.

The Institute’s library contains a copy of this booklet.

Charles David O'Malley translated this work into English [“Michael Servetus. A Translation of his Geographical, Medical and Astrological Writings with Introductions and Notes” (Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1953), pp. 38-54. Prof. Alcalá analised and translated this work into Spanish: “Apología contra Fuchs”, Instituto de Estudios Sijenenses “Miguel Servet”, Villanueva de Sijena, 1981).

In relation to Faith and Works
“Lutherans, whose arguments and mistakes will not be difficult to contest or discover, do not want to attribute any value to works, and they do not understand enough the scope of the justification. For them, it is enough that the Savior tell to each who believe in Christ: «Your faith saves you, go in peace». This is of course, the justification only by faith, without works, as in Rom. 4 happned to Abraham.” (p. 21)

Faith without works can die
“The reason lies in the fact that in man, the main substantial form is the active cause, the wish itself, while the faith and the appearances are mere instruments. For that reason, it is necessary to give some thought to those actions, on which happiness promises are referred so much in the Scriptures. It is enough the testimony of James that, without verifying it with works, the faith can die. The same as the philosophers said that the quality of virtue diminishes if it is not put in practice.” (p. 23)

Lichen and syphilis are the same thing
“In conclusion, Champier does not contend that they are the same the lichen and Gallic morbus, who he has constantly taught it is a new disease manifestation of the God’s wrath, since in this field Fuchs and Champier shared the same opinion, since Fuchs acknowledges that it is a new decease and Champier too, and they also share with the theologians that it is a manifestation of God´s wrath, no reason existed for Fuchs tried to find, so avidly, such a trivial occasion to slander him.” (p. 27).